Adventure Fiction（冒险小说）
Adventure fiction is a genre of fiction whose main theme is often formed by an adventure with exciting risks,physical dangers and fast-paced actions.The key protagonist is so nimble and courageous that he or she is able to fight against strong enemies and survive in very dangerous situations.According to critic Don D'Ammassa[1]，“adventure fiction is an event or series of events that happens outside the course of the protagonist's ordinary life,usually accompanied by danger,often by physical action.Adventure stories almost always move quickly,and the pace of the plot is at least as important as characterization,setting and other elements of a creative work.”[2]Adventure fiction often overlaps with science fiction,romance and spy thrillers.Robinson Crusoe （1719） written by Daniel Defoe[3]is viewed as a notable adventure fiction.
冒险小说是小说的一种，其主题往往是带有刺激的危险、身体的威胁和激烈的打斗的冒险活动。主人公机智勇敢，能够打败强敌，脱险存活。根据批评家堂·德阿玛莎：“冒险小说是发生在主人公日常生活之外的一件事或者一系列事件，经常伴有危险和打斗。冒险故事往往情节发展迅速，情节节奏至少与作品中的人物塑造、场景以及其他的因素同等重要。”冒险小说与科幻小说、传奇小说以及谍战片有共通之处。丹尼尔·笛福写的《鲁滨逊漂流记》（1719）就被认为是著名的冒险小说。
Aestheticism or the Aesthetic Movement（唯美主义）
In the 19th century,there appeared many literary and art movements,among which Aestheticism was one of the most prominent that rose in the late 19th century and withered away soon.It concentrated on the doctrine of “art for art's sake”，which was first coined by Victor Cousin[4]in 1818.Aesthetes criticized Mammonism and Utilitarianism,thinking them as the ugliness of the industrial age.They held that art should serve no political,religious,moral,didactic or other purpose.Oscar Wilde[5]was the milestone of aestheticism,and his being put into prison because of his homosexuality in 1900 was generally thought as the end of the trend.
在19世纪，出现了很多文学艺术运动，其中唯美主义是兴起于19世纪末很快又衰败的最著名的运动。它以维克多·库辛在1818年首次提出来的“为艺术而艺术”为核心。唯美主义者批判拜金主义和功利主义，认为这是工业时代的丑陋面。他们认为艺术不应该有任何政治、宗教、道德、说教或者其他的目的。奥斯卡·王尔德是唯美主义的里程碑，他在1900年因为同性恋而被捕入狱，这通常被认为是唯美主义的结束。
Allegory（寓言）
Allegory is a narrative and literary device with a long history and vigorous vitality.It is widely used throughout the world in almost all literary forms.To some extent,it is an extended metaphor with hidden illustration and profound philosophy through symbolic figures,actions,imagery,or events.
John Bunyan[6]'s The Pilgrim's Progress（1678） is the most notable allegory in English.In addition,John Dryden[7]'s Absalom and Achitophel（1681） and John Milton[8]'sParadise Lost（1667）are also representatives of the genre.
寓言是有着悠久历史和旺盛生命力的叙事文体和文学体裁。它在整个世界几乎所有文学形式中广泛应用。从某种意义上讲，它就是通过象征性人物、动作、意象或者事件而进行暗示和讲述深刻道理的比喻。
约翰·班扬的《天路历程》（1678）就是最为著名的英文寓言。除此之外，约翰·德莱顿的《押沙龙与阿奇托菲尔》（1681）和约翰·弥尔顿的《失乐园》（1667）也是寓言的代表作品。
Alliteration（头韵）
Alliteration （also called “initial rhyme” or “head rhyme”） is an important term in stylistics which can be traced back to Old English.It is the repetition of the first consonant sounds in some neighboring words.Shakespeare is a master using alliteration.In his works,there are many examples,such as:crafty confusion,fantasy of fame,delight and dole and so on.So alliteration “depends not on letters but on sounds”.For example,know-nothing is alliterative,while climate change is not.
头韵（也被称为“首字母韵”或者“开头韵”）是文体学中的一个重要术语，可以追溯到古英语时期。它是指相邻单词的第一个辅音重复使用。莎士比亚是使用头韵的大师。在其作品中例子俯拾即是，例如：“装糊涂、虚名、喜与悲”等等。所以头韵“取决的不是字母而是发音”例如，know-nothing是头韵，而climate change就不是。
Allusion（典故）
Allusion,as a figure of speech,is an indirect or covert reference to an event,person,place,mythology or literary work.Because allusions are not identified clearly,readers should be knowledgeable enough to make the connection themselves.Some modern authors,including James Joyce,Ezra Pound[9]，and T.S.Eliot often used specialized allusions,which are rarely understood by common readers.The works of Shakespeare are often sources of allusions.
典故是一种修辞，间接或隐蔽地提到一个事件、人物、地点、神话或者文学作品。因为典故并没有清楚地标识出来，所以读者需要具有丰富的知识才能自己进行联系。一些现代作家，例如詹姆斯·乔伊斯、埃兹拉·庞德和T.S.艾略特经常使用普通读者很难理解的特殊典故。莎士比亚的作品经常是典故的来源。
Ambiguity（复义性）
In 1930，the pioneer of New Criticism,William Empson （1906—1984） published his book Seven Types of Ambiguity,which is one of the most influential critical works of the 20th century.Since then,the term ambiguity has been widely used in criticism to mean that a word or expression is used to signify two or more distinct descriptive senses or to express two or more feelings or attitudes.In a word,ambiguity means multiple interpretations.
在1930年，新批评的先锋，威廉·燕卜荪（1906—1984）出版了《复义七型》，这是20世纪最有影响的批评作品之一。自此，复义性就在评论界广泛使用，指一个单词或表述被用来暗指两个或者更多的含义，或者用来表达两种或更多的情感或态度。总而言之，复义性就是指多种解释。
American Realism（美国现实主义）
As a literary movement,realism initiated in France in the 19th century and is often associated with the French novelists—Gustave Flaubert and Balzac.In American literature,realism encompasses the period of time from the Civil War to the turn of last century （1865—1918）.It is a reaction against romanticism and attempts to present real life without romantic subjectivity.So according to Sir Paul Harvey[10]，realism was “a loosely used term meaning truth to the observed facts of life”[11].Its representatives are William Dean Howells[12]，Henry James[13]，Mark Twain[14]，O Henry[15]and so on.
现实主义是19世纪起始于法国的文学运动，经常与法国小说家古斯塔夫·福楼拜、巴尔扎克相联系。在美国文学中，现实主义始于内战时期，结束于20世纪初（1865—1918）。现实主义是对浪漫主义做出的反应，试图不带有任何浪漫主观性来描述现实生活。所以根据保罗·哈维所说，现实主义就是“一个泛指真实呈现所观察到的现实生活的术语”。其代表人物有威廉·迪恩·豪威尔斯、亨利·詹姆斯、马克·吐温、欧·亨利等。
Angry Young Men（愤怒的青年）
“Angry young men”，considered to be derived from Leslie Paul's Angry Young Manpublished in 1951，was first coined by the Royal Court Theatre's press agent to describe John Osborne[16]'s Look Back in Anger（1956）.It is used to refer to a group of working-and-middle-class British young writers and critics in the 1950s who were dissatisfied with some political and social phenomena and criticized the problems.John Osborne and Kingsley Amis[17]are leading members of the group.
“愤怒的青年”被认为来源于莱斯利·保罗1951年出版的《愤怒的青年》，最初是由皇家宫廷剧院的报社用来描述约翰·奥斯本的《愤怒的回顾》（1956）。现用来指在20世纪50年代一群工人和中层阶级的英国年轻作家和批评家，他们对一些政治和社会现象很不满意并对其进行批评。约翰·奥斯本和金斯利·艾米斯是其领袖。
Antihero（反英雄）
An antihero,as a term opposed to hero first used in 1714，is a protagonist in literature,theatre and film who lacks traditional heroic qualities such as courage,sacrifice,competence and morality.Antiheroes are often lazy,mean,weak and incompetent,but are not actually evil.They are sympathetic but indifferent to politics.In the 19th century,the antihero was very popular and became an established form of social criticism.In the early 20th century,many writers created many antiheroes in their works,such as,Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis（1915） and Jean-Paul Sartre's La Nausée （1938）.
反英雄，作为一个与“英雄”相对的术语，最先在1714年使用，是指在文学、戏剧和影视中缺少传统的英雄品质，例如勇敢、牺牲、能力和美德。反英雄们往往是懒惰的、吝啬的、虚弱的、力不胜任的，但是事实上他们本质不坏。他们富有同情心但是对政治冷漠。在19世纪，反英雄受到热捧并成为社会批评的既定形式。在20世纪初，很多作家在其作品中塑造了个性鲜明的反英雄，例如弗兰兹·卡夫卡的《变形记》（1915）以及让—保罗·萨特的《恶心》（1938）。
Antithesis（对偶）
According to The Columbia Encyclopedia,published by Columbia University Press in 2000，antithesis is “a figure of speech involving a seeming contradiction of ideas,words,clauses,or sentences within a balanced grammatical structure.Parallelism of expression serves to emphasize opposition of ideas”.Alexander Pope（1688—1744） and other poets cultivated antithesis in the 18th century to make readers better understand what they wanted to express.Samuel Johnson[18]once said “Marriage has many pains,but celibacy has no pleasures”[19]，which obviously employs antithesis.
根据哥伦比亚大学在2000年出版的《哥伦比亚百科全书（第六版）》，对偶是“一种修辞方式，在对应的语法结构中包含了观点、词语、从句或者句子表面上的矛盾。并行性表达是为了强调观点的相对”。亚历山大·蒲柏（1688—1744）和其他的诗人在18世纪为了使读者能更好地理解他们想要表达的意思而原创了对偶。塞缪尔·约翰逊曾说到“婚姻多痛苦，单身无乐趣”，这句话就很明显使用了对偶。
Aphorism（格言）
An aphorism is a concise and pointed statement which tells us a general truth,principle or precept in a fact tone.An aphorist often gives a sentence or two to artful integrity.Let's take Oscar Wilde's aphorism as an example：“one's real life is often the life one does not lead.”In our life,we are often confronted with aphorisms.For example：“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.”“Birds of a feather flock together.”
格言就是简洁明了的一句话，它以一种事实的口吻告诉我们一个普遍的道理、原则或者训诫。格言家经常给出的格言是一两句有巧妙完整性的句子。让我们来看一下奥斯卡·王尔德的格言“一个人真正的生活就是他从来没有过过的生活。”在我们生活中，我们经常能看到格言。例如：“一鸟在手，胜过二鸟在林。”“物以类聚、人以群分。”
Apollonian and Dionysian（日神式思维与酒神式思维）
According to ancient Greek mythology,Apollo and Dionysus are Zeus's two sons.Apollo is the god of sun who represents reason and form,while Dionysus is the god of wine who represents ecstasy and chaos.Inspired by the mythology,Friedrich Nietzsche（1844—1900） put forward his philosophical and literary dichotomy in The Birth of Tragedy （1872）.He thinks that Apollonian means the unique individuality and all types of form and structure are Apollonian,while Dionysian,opposed to Apollonian,means giving up individuality and all forms of enthusiasm and ecstasy are Dionysian.The true tragedy consists of the tension between the Apollonian and the Dionysian.Without the Apollonian,the Dionysian lacks the form and structure to make a coherent piece of art,and without the Dionysian,the Apollonian lacks the necessary vitality and passion.During the “long sixties” （1958—1974），Dionysian was an influential term in America.
根据古希腊神话，阿波罗与狄奥尼索斯都是宙斯的儿子。阿波罗是太阳神，代表着理性与形式，而狄奥尼索斯是酒神，代表着疯狂和混乱。受到了神话的启发，弗里德里希·尼采（1844—1900）在《悲剧的诞生》（1872）提出了哲学和文学的两分法。他认为日神式思维意味着个人主义，所有类型的形式与结构都是日神式思维，而酒神式思维与日神式思维相反，它意味着抛弃个人主义，所有形式的热情与疯狂都是酒神式思维。真正的悲剧是由日神式思维和酒神式思维之间的张力组成的。没有日神式思维，酒神式思维缺乏形式与结构，不能成为连贯的艺术作品；没有酒神式思维，日神式思维缺少必要的生气与激情。在“漫长的六十年代”（1958—1974），酒神式思维成为美国颇具影响力的词汇。
Archetypal Criticism（原型批评）
Archetypal criticism has been used much as a literary criticism since the publication of Maud Bodkin's Archetypal Patterns in Poetryin 1934.It derives from Carl Jung's “collective unconscious” （a kind of universal psyche） and prevailed in western countries in the 1950s,when New Criticism began to decline.
It argues that cultural and psychological myths determine a literary work's meaning.Mythology is reckoned as “the textbook of the archetypes” by Jung.
Northrop Frye （1912—1991），a Canadian literary critic,is one of the most eminent founders of the criticism.His The Anatomy of Criticismpublished in 1957 elaborately interprets mythological archetypal criticism.In addition,G.Wilson Knight（1897—1985），Robert Graves（1895—1985），Philip Wheelwright（1901—1970），and Joseph Campbell（1904—1987） are also notable representatives.
自1934年莫德·鲍德金的《诗中的原型模式》出版，原型批评理论就一直作为文学批评理论而被使用。它起源于卡尔·荣格的“集体无意识”（一种普遍的心理）并且在新批评理论开始衰落的20世纪50年代在西方国家盛行。
它认为文化和心理神话决定了一个文学作品的意义。荣格认为神话传说是“原型的教科书”。
诺思洛普·弗莱（1912—1991），加拿大文学批评家，是该理论最为杰出的创始人之一。他在1957年出版的《批评的剖析》详尽地解释了神话原型批评。除此之外，威尔逊·奈特（1897—1985），罗伯特·格雷夫斯（1895—1985），菲利普·维尔莱特（1901—1970），还有约瑟夫·坎贝尔（1904—1987）都是杰出的代表人物。
Aristotelian Criticism（亚里士多德批评主义）
Aristotle,as a great Greek philosopher,was famous for Poeticsproduced around 335 or 330 B.C.It mainly discussed tragedy and epic.So his doctrine and theories about tragedy and the tragic hero can be found in it.
In Aristotle's opinion,plot is more important than character in a tragedy.He summarizes six elementary aspects of tragic poetry:dianoia （thought），melos （music），opsis （spectacle），mythos （story or plot），lexis （diction），and ethos （character）.
In contrast to Platonic Criticism,Aristotelian Criticism lays more attention to literary analysis of the work itself.
亚里士多德，是一位伟大的希腊哲学家，因在公元前335年或者公元前330年出版的《诗学》而闻名。该书主要讨论悲剧和史诗，所以他关于悲剧以及悲剧英雄的观点和理论在该书中都得以体现。
依亚里士多德所见，在悲剧中情节要比人物更重要。他总结了悲剧诗歌的六个主要方面：思想、韵律、场面、情节、措辞以及人物。
与柏拉图批评主义相比，亚里士多德批评主义更注重文本本身的文学分析。
Assonance（半韵）
Assonance is a figure of repetition:two or more neighboring words repeat the resemble or similar vowel sounds but start with different consonants,as in “Men sell the wedding bell”，“lake” and “fate”.
As a literary device,it is used to achieve emphasis,cohesion and musical effect in a short part of a text.
Assonance is so similar to rhyme that many people are confused.What differentiates assonance from rhyme is that rhyme usually is both similar vowel and consonant sounds,as in “lake” and “fake”.
半韵是一种重复：相邻的两个或者更多的单词有着一样或者相似的元音发音，但是以不同的辅音开头，例如“Men sell the wedding bell”以及“lake和fate”。
半韵是一种文学方法，是为了对文中的一个小片段进行强调从而达到连贯和优美的效果。
半韵与韵律很相似，所以很多人会弄混。半韵与韵律的不同在于韵律通常包含的是元音与辅音都相似的发音，例如“lake和fake”。
Augustan Age（奥古斯都时代或拉丁文学全盛时代）
Augustan Age originally referred to the age of the Roman emperor Augustus,from 27 B.C.to 14 A.D.,during which three immortal Latin poets Virgil[20]，Ovid[21]，and Horace[22]created great literary works.Augustus Age marked the golden age of Latin literature.
The first half of the eighteenth century （more specifically,the period after the Restoration era to the death of Alexander Pope） in English literature was also called Augustan Age,because many famous writers,such as Alexander Pope （1688—1744），Johnathan Swift （1667—1745），John Dryden （1631—1700） and Joseph Addison （1672—1719） self-consciously imitated the Augustan writers （mentioned in the first paragraph） to achieve harmony,precision and urbanity in their poems.
奥古斯都时代本来是指罗马帝王奥古斯都统治时期，从公元前27年到公元14年，在此期间，三位永垂不朽的拉丁诗人维吉尔、奥维德和贺拉斯创作了伟大的文学作品。奥古斯都时代标志着拉丁文学的黄金期。
18世纪上半叶（更准确地说，就是复辟时期之后直到亚历山大·蒲柏去世为止）在英国文学中也被称为奥古斯都时代。因为，很多著名的作家，例如亚历山大·蒲柏（1688—1744）、乔纳森·斯威夫特（1667—1745）、约翰·德莱顿（1631—1700）以及约瑟夫·爱迪生（1672—1719）自觉地模仿奥古斯都时期的作家（第一段提到的）以达到诗歌的和谐、准确以及优雅。
Automatic Writing（自动书写）
Automatic writing,also called freewriting,is a form of writing advocated by surrealist Andre Breton[23]in the early 20th century.During the process of automatic writing,the writer writes something unconsciously.That is,the hands form the message or information,but the writer is unaware of what will be written down.The writer writes whatever words come to mind.It is considered to be an excellent tool for generating creative ideas.
自动书写，也被称为自由书写，是一种写作方式，由超现实主义者安德烈·布勒东在20世纪初倡导。在自动书写过程中，作者无意识地进行写作。也就是说，手用来书写文字或信息，但是作者对写的东西并无意识，作者会写出任何头脑中出现的单词。自动书写被认为是产生创造性观点的极好工具。
Avant-garde（先锋）
Avant-garde,a phrase loaned from French,means “advanced guard”.It has military origin,meaning the front part of an army.But now,it refers to the group of people who have surprising,progressive,innovative and creative ideas especially in the fields of art,literature,culture,etc.
In 1845，Gabriel-Désiré Laverdant first used the phrase in reference to art and literature.The avant-garde breaks the old rules and boundaries,explores new things,and advocates radical social reforms.
先锋，是从法语来的外来词，意思是“先进的士兵”。它起源于军队，意思是队伍的前面部分。但是现在，它用来指那些在艺术、文学、文化等领域有着惊人、先进、革新和创新想法的人们。
在1845年，加布里埃尔·德西雷·拉韦尔第一次使用该词来指艺术与文学。先锋们打破陈规，探索新事物并倡导激进的社会变革。
注释
[1]Don D'Ammassa is a critic and author,famous for Blood Beast（1988） and Servants of Chaos （2002）.
[2]Don D'Ammassa，“Encyclopedia of Adventure Fiction” Facts on File Library of World Literature,Infobase Publishing,2009，pp.vii-viii.
[3]Daniel Defoe （1660—1731） was an English writer,best known as the author of Robinson Crusoe.He was one of the earliest practitioners of the novel.
[4]Victor Cousin （1792—1867） was a French philosopher as well as the founder of “eclecticism”.
[5]Oscar Wilde （1854—1900） was an Irish writer,notable for The Picture of Dorian Gray（1890） and The Importance of Being Earnest （1895）.
[6]John Bunyan （1628—1688） was an English Christian writer,best known for The Pilgrim's Progress.
[7]John Dryden （1631—1700） was an English poet and critic,best known as the king of Restoration literature.So the Restoration period is also called the “Age of Dryden”.
[8]John Milton （1608—1674） was an English poet,pamphleteer and man of letters.His Paradise Lost,written in blank verse,is considered as the greatest epic poem in English.
[9]Ezra Pound （1885—1972） was an American poet,best known as one of the most important representatives of Imaginism.
[10]Sir Paul Harvey （1869—1948） was a British diplomat and editor of literary reference works.
[11]Sir Paul Harvey,The Oxford Companion to English Literature,1930.extracted from Katherine Paterson,Read For Your Life #16，Kindle Edition,p.4.
[12]William Dean Howells （1837—1920） was an American realist writer and literary critic,known as the “The Dean of American Letters”.Christmas Every Day and The Rise of Silas Laphamare his notable works.
[13]Henry James （1843—1916） was an American writer famous for Daisy Miller（1879），The Portrait of a Lady（1881） and The Ambassadors（1903）.He was considered as one of the founders and leaders of realism.
[14]Mark Twain （1835—1910） was an American writer,best known for The Adventure of Tom Sawyer（1876） and Adventure of Huckleberry Finn（1885）.
[15]O Henry （1862—1910） was an American short story writer best known for his witticism,wordplay,and unexpected endings in his short stories.
[16]John Osborne （1929—1994） was an English writer,whose Look Back in Angerearned him reputation.
[17]Kingsley Amis （1922—1995） was an English novelist,poet and critic,whose Lucky Jim（1954） is one of representative works of Angry Young Men.
[18]Samuel Johnson （1709—1784） was an English poet,essayist,critic,and biographer considered as a prominent figure in the 18th century.
[19]Samuel Johnson,The History of Rasselas,Prince of Abyssinia,Chapter 26.
[20]Virgil（70 B.C.—19 B.C.） was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period,best known for Eclogues,Georgics,and Aeneid.
[21]Ovid （43 B.C.—17/18 A.D.） was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period,notable for Metamorphoses.
[22]Horace （65 B.C.—8 B.C.） was a leading poet during the Augustan period,famous for Arts Poetica.
[23]Andre Breton （1896—1966） was a French writer and the founder of Surrealism,whose Surrealist Manifesto（1924） was a notable book.